Generics for Vector and Transform

fractional/src/continuous.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,88 @@
+//
+// A «continued fraction» is a representation of a fraction as a vector
+// of integrals… Irrational fractions will result in infinite most of the
+// time repetitive vectors. They can be used to get a resonable approximation
+// for sqrt on fractionals.
+//
+// Georg Hopp <georg@steffers.org>
+//
+// Copyright © 2019 Georg Hopp
+//
+// This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
+// it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
+// the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or
+// (at your option) any later version.
+//
+// This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
+// but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
+// MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
+// GNU General Public License for more details.
+//
+// You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
+// along with this program.  If not, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
+//
+use crate::Fractional;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct Continuous (Vec<i64>);
+
+impl Continuous {
+    // calculate a sqrt as continued fraction sequence. Taken from:
+    // https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methods_of_computing_square_roots#
+    //  Continued_fraction_expansion
+    pub fn sqrt(x :i64, a0 :i64) -> Self {
+        fn inner(mut v :Vec<i64>,
+                 x     :i64,
+                 a0    :i64,
+                 mn    :i64,
+                 dn    :i64,
+                 an    :i64) -> Vec<i64> {
+            let mn_1 = dn * an - mn;
+            let dn_1 = (x - mn_1 * mn_1) / dn;
+            let an_1 = (a0 + mn_1) / dn_1;
+
+            v.push(an);
+
+            // The convergence criteria „an_1 == 2 * a0“ is not good for
+            // very small x thus I decided to break the iteration at constant
+            // time. Which is the 10 below.
+            match v.len() {
+                10 => v,
+                _  => inner(v, x, a0, mn_1, dn_1, an_1),
+            }
+        }
+
+        Continuous(inner(Vec::new(), x, a0, 0, 1, a0))
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<&Fractional> for Continuous {
+    // general continous fraction form of a fractional...
+    fn from(x :&Fractional) -> Self {
+        fn inner(mut v :Vec<i64>, f :Fractional) -> Vec<i64> {
+            let Fractional(n, d)   = f;
+            let a                  = n / d;
+            let Fractional(_n, _d) = f - a.into();
+
+            v.push(a);
+            match _n {
+                1 => { v.push(_d); v },
+                _ => inner(v, Fractional(_d, _n)),
+            }
+        }
+
+        Continuous(inner(Vec::new(), *x))
+    }
+}
+
+impl Into<Fractional> for &Continuous {
+    fn into(self) -> Fractional {
+        let Continuous(c) = self;
+        let Fractional(n, d) = c.iter().rev().fold( Fractional(0, 1)
+                                                  , |acc, x| {
+            let Fractional(an, ad) = acc + (*x).into();
+            Fractional(ad, an)
+        });
+        Fractional(d, n)
+    }
+}

fractional/src/fractional.rs

@@ -31,10 +31,6 @@ use std::num::TryFromIntError;
 #[derive(Debug, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
 pub struct Fractional (pub i64, pub i64);
 
-pub type Continuous = Vec<i64>;
-
-pub type Error = &'static str;
-
 #[inline]
 fn hcf(x :i64, y :i64) -> i64 {
     match y {
@@ -43,36 +39,8 @@ fn hcf(x :i64, y :i64) -> i64 {
     }
 }
 
-// calculate a sqrt as continued fraction sequence. Taken from:
-// https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methods_of_computing_square_roots#Continued_fraction_expansion
-fn sqrt_cfrac(x :i64, a0 :i64) -> Continuous {
-    let v :Continuous = Vec::new();
-
-    fn inner(mut v  :Continuous,
-                 x  :i64,
-                 a0 :i64,
-                 mn :i64,
-                 dn :i64,
-                 an :i64) -> Continuous {
-        let mn_1 = dn * an - mn;
-        let dn_1 = (x - mn_1 * mn_1) / dn;
-        let an_1 = (a0 + mn_1) / dn_1;
-
-        v.push(an);
-        match v.len() {
-            10 => v,
-            _  => inner(v, x, a0, mn_1, dn_1, an_1),
-        }
-
-        // This convergence criterium is not good for very small x
-        // thus I decided to break the iteration at constant time.
-//        match an_1 == 2 * a0 {
-//            true => v,
-//            _    => inner(v, x, a0, mn_1, dn_1, an_1),
-//        }
-    }
-
-    inner(v, x, a0, 0, 1, a0)
+pub fn from_vector(xs: &Vec<i64>) -> Vec<Fractional> {
+    xs.iter().map(|x| Fractional(*x, 1)).collect()
 }
 
 impl Fractional {
@@ -98,76 +66,6 @@ impl Fractional {
             Self(n / hcf(n, d), d / hcf(n, d))
         }
     }
-
-    #[inline]
-    pub fn numerator(self) -> i64 {
-        self.0
-    }
-
-    #[inline]
-    pub fn denominator(self) -> i64 {
-        self.1
-    }
-
-    // This is a really bad approximation of sqrt for a fractional...
-    // for (9/3) it will result 3 which if way to far from the truth,
-    // which is ~1.7320508075
-    // BUT we can use this value as starting guess for creating a 
-    // continous fraction for the sqrt... and create a much better
-    // fractional representation of the sqrt.
-    // So, if inner converges, but is not a perfect square (does not
-    // end up in an Ordering::Equal - which is the l > h case)
-    // we use the l - 1 as starting guess for sqrt_cfrac.
-    // taken from:
-    // https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/square-root-of-an-integer/
-    pub fn sqrt(self) -> Result<Self, Error> {
-        // find the sqrt of x in O(log x/2).
-        // This stops if a perfect sqare was found. Else it passes
-        // the found value as starting guess to the continous fraction
-        // sqrt function.
-        fn floor_sqrt(x :i64) -> Fractional {
-            fn inner(l :i64, h :i64, x :i64) -> Fractional {
-                if l > h {
-                    (&sqrt_cfrac(x, l - 1)).into()
-                } else {
-                    let m = (l + h) / 2;
-                    match x.cmp(&(m * m)) {
-                        Ordering::Equal   => m.into(),
-                        Ordering::Less    => inner(l, m - 1, x),
-                        Ordering::Greater => inner(m + 1, h, x),
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-
-            match x {
-                0 => 0.into(),
-                1 => 1.into(),
-                _ => inner(1, x / 2, x),
-            }
-        }
-
-        let Fractional(n, d) = self;
-
-        let n = match n.cmp(&0) {
-            Ordering::Equal   => 0.into(),
-            Ordering::Less    => return Err("sqrt on negative undefined"),
-            Ordering::Greater => floor_sqrt(n),
-        };
-
-        let d = match d.cmp(&0) {
-            Ordering::Equal   => 0.into(),
-            Ordering::Less    => return Err("sqrt on negative undefined"),
-            Ordering::Greater => floor_sqrt(d),
-        };
-
-        Ok(n / d)
-    }
-}
-
-impl fmt::Display for Fractional {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "({}/{})", self.0, self.1)
-    }
 }
 
 impl From<i64> for Fractional {
@@ -176,6 +74,12 @@ impl From<i64> for Fractional {
     }
 }
 
+impl From<i32> for Fractional {
+    fn from(x: i32) -> Self {
+        Self(x as i64, 1)
+    }
+}
+
 impl TryFrom<usize> for Fractional {
     type Error = &'static str;
 
@@ -188,10 +92,6 @@ impl TryFrom<usize> for Fractional {
     }
 }
 
-pub fn from_vector(xs: &Vec<i64>) -> Vec<Fractional> {
-    xs.iter().map(|x| Fractional(*x, 1)).collect()
-}
-
 impl TryInto<f64> for Fractional {
     type Error = TryFromIntError;
 
@@ -212,34 +112,9 @@ impl TryInto<(i32, i32)> for Fractional {
     }
 }
 
-impl Into<Continuous> for Fractional {
-    // general continous fraction form of a fractional...
-    fn into(self) -> Continuous {
-        let v :Continuous = Vec::new();
-
-        fn inner(mut v :Continuous, f :Fractional) -> Continuous {
-            let Fractional(n, d)   = f;
-            let a                  = n / d;
-            let Fractional(_n, _d) = f - a.into();
-
-            v.push(a);
-            match _n {
-                1 => { v.push(_d); v },
-                _ => inner(v, Fractional(_d, _n)),
-            }
-        }
-
-        inner(v, self)
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<&Continuous> for Fractional {
-    fn from(x :&Continuous) -> Self {
-        let Self(n, d) = x.iter().rev().fold(Fractional(0, 1), |acc, x| {
-            let Self(an, ad) = acc + (*x).into();
-            Self(ad, an)
-        });
-        Self(d, n)
+impl fmt::Display for Fractional {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "({}/{})", self.0, self.1)
     }
 }
 

fractional/src/lib.rs

@@ -20,11 +20,13 @@
 //
 extern crate lazy_static;
 
+pub type Error = &'static str;
+
+pub mod continuous;
 pub mod fractional;
+pub mod transform;
 pub mod trigonometry;
 pub mod vector;
-pub mod transform;
 
-use fractional::{Fractional};
-use trigonometry::{sin, cos};
-use vector::{Vector};
+use fractional::Fractional;
+use vector::Vector;

fractional/src/main.rs

@@ -22,8 +22,9 @@ use std::convert::{TryFrom, TryInto, Into};
 use std::num::TryFromIntError;
 use std::f64::consts::PI as FPI;
 
-use fractional::fractional::{Fractional, from_vector, Continuous};
-use fractional::trigonometry::{sin, cos, tan, PI};
+use fractional::continuous::Continuous;
+use fractional::fractional::{Fractional, from_vector};
+use fractional::trigonometry::Trig;
 use fractional::vector::{Vector};
 use fractional::transform::{translate, rotate_x, rotate_y, rotate_z, rotate_v};
 
@@ -51,8 +52,8 @@ fn continuous() {
     let d = Fractional(45, 16);
     let e = Fractional(16, 45);
 
-    let dc :Continuous = d.into();
-    let ec :Continuous = e.into();
+    let dc :Continuous = (&d).into();
+    let ec :Continuous = (&e).into();
 
     println!("cont frac of d : {} => {:?}", d, dc);
     println!("cont frac of e : {} => {:?}", e, ec);
@@ -82,21 +83,22 @@ fn sqrt() {
 }
 
 fn pi() {
-    let pir :f64        = PI.try_into().unwrap();
-    let pit :(i32, i32) = PI.try_into().unwrap();
-    let pi2r :f64       = (PI * PI).try_into().unwrap();
+    let pi              = Fractional::pi();
+    let pir :f64        = pi.try_into().unwrap();
+    let pit :(i32, i32) = pi.try_into().unwrap();
+    let pi2r :f64       = (pi * pi).try_into().unwrap();
 
     println!("        Rust π : {}"     , FPI);
-    println!("             π : {} {}"  , PI, pir);
+    println!("             π : {} {}"  , pi, pir);
     println!("    π as tuple : {:?}"   , pit);
     println!("       Rust π² : {}"     , FPI * FPI);
-    println!("            π² : {} {}"  , PI * PI, pi2r);
+    println!("            π² : {} {}"  , pi * pi, pi2r);
 }
 
 fn _sin() {
     for d in [ 0, 45, 90, 135, 180, 225, 270, 315
              , 9, 17, 31, 73, 89, 123, 213, 312, 876 ].iter() {
-        let s       = sin(*d as i32);
+        let s       = Fractional::sin(*d as i32);
         let sr :f64 = s.try_into().unwrap();
         let _s      = f64::sin(*d as f64 * FPI / 180.0);
 
@@ -107,22 +109,22 @@ fn _sin() {
 fn _tan() {
     for d in [ 0, 45, 90, 135, 180, 225, 270, 315
              , 9, 17, 31, 73, 89, 123, 213, 312, 876 ].iter() {
-        let s       = tan(*d as i32);
-        let sr :f64 = s.try_into().unwrap();
-        let _s      = f64::tan(*d as f64 * FPI / 180.0);
+        let t       = Fractional::tan(*d as i32);
+        let tr :f64 = t.try_into().unwrap();
+        let _t      = f64::tan(*d as f64 * FPI / 180.0);
 
-        println!("{:>14} : {} {} / {}", format!("tan {}", d), s, sr, _s);
+        println!("{:>14} : {} {} / {}", format!("tan {}", d), t, tr, _t);
     }
 }
 
 fn _cos() {
     for d in [ 0, 45, 90, 135, 180, 225, 270, 315
              , 9, 17, 31, 73, 89, 123, 213, 312, 876 ].iter() {
-        let s       = cos(*d as i32);
-        let sr :f64 = s.try_into().unwrap();
-        let _s      = f64::cos(*d as f64 * FPI / 180.0);
+        let c       = Fractional::cos(*d as i32);
+        let cr :f64 = c.try_into().unwrap();
+        let _c      = f64::cos(*d as f64 * FPI / 180.0);
 
-        println!("{:>14} : {} {} / {}", format!("cos {}", d), s, sr, _s);
+        println!("{:>14} : {} {} / {}", format!("cos {}", d), c, cr, _c);
     }
 }
 
@@ -152,8 +154,8 @@ fn _vector() {
 }
 
 fn _transform() {
-    let v   = Vector(1.into(), 1.into(), 1.into());
-    let v1  = Vector(1.into(), 2.into(), 3.into());
+    let v   = Vector(Fractional(1,1), Fractional(1,1), Fractional(1,1));
+    let v1  = Vector(Fractional(1,1), Fractional(2,1), Fractional(3,1));
     let mt  = translate(v);
 
     println!("{:>14} : {}", "Vector v1", v1);
@@ -184,7 +186,7 @@ fn _transform() {
     }
     println!();
 
-    let v3  = Vector(1.into(), 0.into(), 1.into());
+    let v3  = Vector(Fractional(1,1), Fractional(0,1), Fractional(1,1));
     println!("{:>14} : {}", "Vector v3", v3);
     for d in [ 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 135, 150, 180
              , 210, 225, 240, 270, 300, 315, 330 ].iter() {

fractional/src/transform.rs

@@ -18,15 +18,19 @@
 // You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
 // along with this program.  If not, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
 //
-use std::ops::{Mul};
-use crate::{Fractional, cos, sin, Vector};
-
-pub struct TMatrix( (Fractional, Fractional, Fractional, Fractional)
-                  , (Fractional, Fractional, Fractional, Fractional)
-                  , (Fractional, Fractional, Fractional, Fractional)
-                  , (Fractional, Fractional, Fractional, Fractional) );
-
-pub fn translate(v :Vector) -> TMatrix {
+use std::ops::{Add, Sub, Neg, Mul, Div};
+use crate::Vector;
+use crate::trigonometry::Trig;
+
+pub struct TMatrix<T>( (T, T, T, T)
+                     , (T, T, T, T)
+                     , (T, T, T, T)
+                     , (T, T, T, T) )
+    where T: Add + Sub + Neg + Mul + Div + Trig + From<i32> + Copy;
+
+pub fn translate<T>(v :Vector<T>) -> TMatrix<T>
+where T: Add<Output = T> + Sub<Output = T> + Neg<Output = T>
+       + Mul<Output = T> + Div<Output = T> + Trig + From<i32> + Copy {
     let Vector(x, y, z) = v;
 
     TMatrix( (1.into(), 0.into(), 0.into(), 0.into())
@@ -35,49 +39,71 @@ pub fn translate(v :Vector) -> TMatrix {
            , (       x,        y,        z, 1.into()) )
 }
 
-pub fn rotate_x(a :i32) -> TMatrix {
+pub fn rotate_x<T>(a :i32) -> TMatrix<T>
+where T: Add<Output = T> + Sub<Output = T> + Neg<Output = T>
+       + Mul<Output = T> + Div<Output = T> + Trig + From<i32> + Copy {
+    let sin :T = Trig::sin(a);
+    let cos :T = Trig::cos(a);
+
     TMatrix( (1.into(), 0.into(), 0.into(), 0.into())
-           , (0.into(),   cos(a),  -sin(a), 0.into())
-           , (0.into(),   sin(a),   cos(a), 0.into())
+           , (0.into(), cos     , -sin    , 0.into())
+           , (0.into(), sin     , cos     , 0.into())
            , (0.into(), 0.into(), 0.into(), 1.into()) )
 }
 
-pub fn rotate_y(a :i32) -> TMatrix {
-    TMatrix( (  cos(a), 0.into(),   sin(a), 0.into())
+pub fn rotate_y<T>(a :i32) -> TMatrix<T>
+where T: Add<Output = T> + Sub<Output = T> + Neg<Output = T>
+       + Mul<Output = T> + Div<Output = T> + Trig + From<i32> + Copy {
+    let sin :T = Trig::sin(a);
+    let cos :T = Trig::cos(a);
+
+    TMatrix( (cos     , 0.into(), sin     , 0.into())
            , (0.into(), 1.into(), 0.into(), 0.into())
-           , ( -sin(a), 0.into(),   cos(a), 0.into())
+           , (-sin    , 0.into(), cos     , 0.into())
            , (0.into(), 0.into(), 0.into(), 1.into()) )
 }
 
-pub fn rotate_z(a :i32) -> TMatrix {
-    TMatrix( (  cos(a),  -sin(a), 0.into(), 0.into())
-           , (  sin(a),   cos(a), 0.into(), 0.into())
+pub fn rotate_z<T>(a :i32) -> TMatrix<T>
+where T: Add<Output = T> + Sub<Output = T> + Neg<Output = T>
+       + Mul<Output = T> + Div<Output = T> + Trig + From<i32> + Copy {
+    let sin :T = Trig::sin(a);
+    let cos :T = Trig::cos(a);
+
+    TMatrix( (cos     , -sin    , 0.into(), 0.into())
+           , (sin     , cos     , 0.into(), 0.into())
            , (0.into(), 0.into(), 1.into(), 0.into())
            , (0.into(), 0.into(), 0.into(), 1.into()) )
 }
 
-pub fn rotate_v(v :&Vector, a :i32) -> TMatrix {
+pub fn rotate_v<T>(v :&Vector<T>, a :i32) -> TMatrix<T>
+where T: Add<Output = T> + Sub<Output = T> + Neg<Output = T>
+       + Mul<Output = T> + Div<Output = T> + Trig + From<i32> + Copy {
     let Vector(x, y, z) = *v;
 
-    let zero :Fractional = 0.into();
-    let one  :Fractional = 1.into();
+    let sin :T = Trig::sin(a);
+    let cos :T = Trig::cos(a);
+
+    let zero :T = 0.into();
+    let one  :T = 1.into();
 
-    TMatrix( ( (one - cos(a)) * x * x + cos(a)
-             , (one - cos(a)) * x * y - sin(a) * z
-             , (one - cos(a)) * x * z + sin(a) * y
+    TMatrix( ( (one - cos) * x * x + cos
+             , (one - cos) * x * y - sin * z
+             , (one - cos) * x * z + sin * y
              , zero )
-           , ( (one - cos(a)) * x * y + sin(a) * z
-             , (one - cos(a)) * y * y + cos(a)
-             , (one - cos(a)) * y * z - sin(a) * x
+           , ( (one - cos) * x * y + sin * z
+             , (one - cos) * y * y + cos
+             , (one - cos) * y * z - sin * x
              , zero )
-           , ( (one - cos(a)) * x * z - sin(a) * y
-             , (one - cos(a)) * y * z + sin(a) * x
-             , (one - cos(a)) * z * z + cos(a)
+           , ( (one - cos) * x * z - sin * y
+             , (one - cos) * y * z + sin * x
+             , (one - cos) * z * z + cos
              , zero )
            , (0.into(), 0.into(), 0.into(), 1.into()) )
 }
 
-pub fn scale(v :Vector) -> TMatrix {
+pub fn scale<T>(v :Vector<T>) -> TMatrix<T>
+where T: Add<Output = T> + Sub<Output = T> + Neg<Output = T>
+       + Mul<Output = T> + Div<Output = T> + Trig + From<i32> + Copy {
     let Vector(x, y, z) = v;
 
     TMatrix( (       x, 0.into(), 0.into(), 0.into())
@@ -86,8 +112,10 @@ pub fn scale(v :Vector) -> TMatrix {
            , (0.into(), 0.into(), 0.into(), 1.into()) )
 }
 
-impl TMatrix {
-    pub fn apply(&self, v :&Vector) -> Vector {
+impl<T> TMatrix<T>
+where T: Add<Output = T> + Sub<Output = T> + Neg<Output = T>
+       + Mul<Output = T> + Div<Output = T> + Trig + From<i32> + Copy {
+    pub fn apply(&self, v :&Vector<T>) -> Vector<T> {
         let TMatrix( (a11, a12, a13, a14)
                    , (a21, a22, a23, a24)
                    , (a31, a32, a33, a34)
@@ -97,13 +125,15 @@ impl TMatrix {
         let v = Vector( a11 * x + a21 * y + a31 * z + a41
                       , a12 * x + a22 * y + a32 * z + a42
                       , a13 * x + a23 * y + a33 * z + a43 );
-        let Fractional(wn, wd) = a14 * x + a24 * y + a34 * z + a44;
+        let w = a14 * x + a24 * y + a34 * z + a44;
 
-        v.mul(&Fractional(wd, wn))
+        v.mul(&w.recip())
     }
 }
 
-impl Mul for TMatrix {
+impl<T> Mul for TMatrix<T>
+where T: Add<Output = T> + Sub<Output = T> + Neg<Output = T>
+       + Mul<Output = T> + Div<Output = T> + Trig + From<i32> + Copy {
     type Output = Self;
 
     // ATTENTION: This is not commutative, nor assoziative.

fractional/src/trigonometry.rs

@@ -26,46 +26,120 @@
 // along with this program.  If not, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
 //
 use std::cmp::Ordering;
-use crate::{Fractional};
+use std::ops::Neg;
+use std::marker::Sized;
+use crate::{Fractional, Error};
+use crate::continuous::Continuous;
 
-pub const PI :Fractional = Fractional(355, 113); // This is a really close
-                                                 // fractional approximation
-                                                 // for pi
+pub trait Trig {
+    fn pi()        -> Self;
+    fn recip(self) -> Self;
+    fn sqrt(self)  -> Result<Self, Error> where Self: Sized;
+    fn sintab()    -> Vec<Self> where Self: Sized;
+    fn tantab()    -> Vec<Self> where Self: Sized;
+
+    fn sin(d :i32) -> Self
+        where Self: Sized + Neg<Output = Self> + Copy {
+        match d {
+            0  ..=90  => Self::sintab()[d as usize],
+            91 ..=180 => Self::sintab()[180 - d as usize],
+            181..=270 => -Self::sintab()[d as usize - 180],
+            271..=359 => -Self::sintab()[360 - d as usize],
+            _         => Self::sin(d % 360),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn cos(d :i32) -> Self
+        where Self: Sized + Neg<Output = Self> + Copy {
+        match d {
+            0  ..=90  => Self::sintab()[90 - d as usize],
+            91 ..=180 => -Self::sintab()[90 - (180 - d as usize)],
+            181..=270 => -Self::sintab()[90 - (d as usize - 180)],
+            271..=359 => Self::sintab()[90 - (360 - d as usize)],
+            _         => Self::cos(d % 360),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn tan(d :i32) -> Self where Self: Sized + Copy {
+        match d {
+            0  ..=179 => Self::tantab()[d as usize],
+            180..=359 => Self::tantab()[d as usize - 180],
+            _         => Self::tan(d % 360),
+        }
+    }
+}
 
 // Try to keep precision as high as possible while having a denominator
-// as small as possible.
-//  The values are taken by triel and error.
+// as small as possible. The values are taken by try and error.
 const PRECISION       :i64 = 1000000;
 const MAX_DENOMINATOR :i64 = 7000;
 
-pub fn sin(d :i32) -> Fractional {
-    match d {
-        0  ..=90  => SINTAB[d as usize],
-        91 ..=180 => SINTAB[180 - d as usize],
-        181..=270 => -SINTAB[d as usize - 180],
-        271..=359 => -SINTAB[360 - d as usize],
-        _         => sin(d % 360),
+// This is a really close fractional approximation for pi.
+impl Trig for Fractional {
+    fn pi() -> Self {
+        Fractional(355, 113)
     }
+
+    fn recip(self) -> Self {
+        let Fractional(n, d) = self;
+        Fractional(d, n)
     }
 
-pub fn cos(d :i32) -> Fractional {
-    match d {
-        0  ..=90  => SINTAB[90 - d as usize],
-        91 ..=180 => -SINTAB[90 - (180 - d as usize)],
-        181..=270 => -SINTAB[90 - (d as usize - 180)],
-        271..=359 => SINTAB[90 - (360 - d as usize)],
-        _         => cos(d % 360),
+    // This is a really bad approximation of sqrt for a fractional...
+    // for (9/3) it will result 3 which if way to far from the truth,
+    // which is ~1.7320508075
+    // BUT we can use this value as starting guess for creating a 
+    // continous fraction for the sqrt... and create a much better
+    // fractional representation of the sqrt.
+    // So, if inner converges, but is not a perfect square (does not
+    // end up in an Ordering::Equal - which is the l > h case)
+    // we use the l - 1 as starting guess for sqrt_cfrac.
+    // taken from:
+    // https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/square-root-of-an-integer/
+    fn sqrt(self) -> Result<Self, Error> {
+        // find the sqrt of x in O(log x/2).
+        // This stops if a perfect sqare was found. Else it passes
+        // the found value as starting guess to the continous fraction
+        // sqrt function.
+        fn floor_sqrt(x :i64) -> Fractional {
+            fn inner(l :i64, h :i64, x :i64) -> Fractional {
+                if l > h {
+                    (&Continuous::sqrt(x, l - 1)).into()
+                } else {
+                    let m = (l + h) / 2;
+                    match x.cmp(&(m * m)) {
+                        Ordering::Equal   => m.into(),
+                        Ordering::Less    => inner(l, m - 1, x),
+                        Ordering::Greater => inner(m + 1, h, x),
+                    }
                 }
             }
 
-pub fn tan(d :i32) -> Fractional {
-    match d {
-        0  ..=179 => TANTAB[d as usize],
-        180..=359 => TANTAB[d as usize - 180],
-        _         => tan(d % 360),
+            match x {
+                0 => 0.into(),
+                1 => 1.into(),
+                _ => inner(1, x / 2, x),
             }
         }
 
+        let Fractional(n, d) = self;
+
+        let n = match n.cmp(&0) {
+            Ordering::Equal   => 0.into(),
+            Ordering::Less    => return Err("sqrt on negative undefined"),
+            Ordering::Greater => floor_sqrt(n),
+        };
+
+        let d = match d.cmp(&0) {
+            Ordering::Equal   => 0.into(),
+            Ordering::Less    => return Err("sqrt on negative undefined"),
+            Ordering::Greater => floor_sqrt(d),
+        };
+
+        Ok(n / d)
+    }
+
+    fn sintab() -> Vec<Self> {
         // hold sin Fractionals from 0 to 89 ...
         // luckily with a bit of index tweeking this can also be used for
         // cosine values.
@@ -74,13 +148,6 @@ lazy_static::lazy_static! {
                 (0..=90).map(|x| _sin(x)).collect();
         }
 
-// This table exists only because the sin(α) / cos(α) method
-// yields very large unreducable denominators in a lot of cases.
-lazy_static::lazy_static! {
-    static ref TANTAB :Vec<Fractional> =
-        (0..180).map(|x| _tan(x)).collect();
-}
-
         // fractional sin from f64 sin. (From 0° to 90°)
         fn _sin(d: u32) -> Fractional {
             match d {
@@ -90,6 +157,17 @@ fn _sin(d: u32) -> Fractional {
             }
         }
 
+        SINTAB.to_vec()
+    }
+
+    fn tantab() -> Vec<Self> {
+        // This table exists only because the sin(α) / cos(α) method
+        // yields very large unreducable denominators in a lot of cases.
+        lazy_static::lazy_static! {
+            static ref TANTAB :Vec<Fractional> =
+                (0..180).map(|x| _tan(x)).collect();
+        }
+
         // fractional tan from f64 tan. (From 0° to 179°)
         fn _tan(d: u32) -> Fractional {
             match d {
@@ -101,15 +179,77 @@ fn _tan(d: u32) -> Fractional {
             }
         }
 
-// search for a fraction with a denominator less than 10000 that
-// provides the minimal precision criteria.
+        TANTAB.to_vec()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Trig for f64 {
+    fn pi() -> Self {
+        std::f64::consts::PI
+    }
+
+    fn recip(self) -> Self {
+        self.recip()
+    }
+
+    fn sqrt(self) -> Result<Self, Error> {
+        let x = self.sqrt();
+        match x.is_nan() {
+            true  => Err("sqrt on negative undefined"),
+            false => Ok(x),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn sintab() -> Vec<Self> {
+        lazy_static::lazy_static! {
+            static ref SINTAB :Vec<f64> =
+                (0..=90).map(|x| _sin(x)).collect();
+        }
+
+        // f64 sin. (From 0° to 90°)
+        fn _sin(d: u32) -> f64 {
+            match d {
+                0  => 0.0,
+                90 => 1.0,
+                _  => (d as f64).to_radians().sin(),
+            }
+        }
+
+        SINTAB.to_vec()
+    }
+
+    fn tantab() -> Vec<Self> {
+        // This table exists only because the sin(α) / cos(α) method
+        // yields very large unreducable denominators in a lot of cases.
+        lazy_static::lazy_static! {
+            static ref TANTAB :Vec<f64> =
+                (0..180).map(|x| _tan(x)).collect();
+        }
+
+        // fractional tan from f64 tan. (From 0° to 179°)
+        fn _tan(d: u32) -> f64 {
+            match d {
+                0   => 0.0,
+                45  => 1.0,
+                90  => std::f64::INFINITY,
+                135 => -1.0,
+                _   => (d as f64).to_radians().tan(),
+            }
+        }
+
+        TANTAB.to_vec()
+    }
+}
+
+// search for a fraction with a denominator less than MAX_DENOMINATOR that
+// provides the minimal PRECISION criteria.
 // !! With f = &f64::tan and d close to the inf boundarys of tan
 //    we get very large numerators because the numerator becomes a
 //    multiple of the denominator.
 fn reduce(d :u32, p :i64, f :&dyn Fn(f64) -> f64) -> Fractional {
     // This is undefined behaviour for very large f64, but our f64
-    // is always between 0.0 and 10000000.0 which should be fine.
-    let s = (f(f64::to_radians(d as f64)) * p as f64).round() as i64;
+    // is always between 0.0 and 1000000.0 which should be fine.
+    let s = (f((d as f64).to_radians()) * p as f64).round() as i64;
     let Fractional(n, dn) = Fractional(s, p).reduce();
     match dn.abs().cmp(&MAX_DENOMINATOR) {
         Ordering::Less => Fractional(n, dn),

fractional/src/vector.rs

@@ -18,29 +18,32 @@
 // You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
 // along with this program.  If not, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
 //
-use std::ops::{Add, Sub, Neg, Mul};
+use std::ops::{Add, Sub, Neg, Mul, Div};
 use std::fmt;
-use crate::{Fractional};
+use crate::trigonometry::Trig;
 
 #[derive(Debug, Eq, Clone, Copy)]
-pub struct Vector(pub Fractional, pub Fractional, pub Fractional);
+pub struct Vector<T>(pub T, pub T, pub T)
+    where T: Add + Sub + Neg + Mul + Div + Trig + Copy;
 
-impl Vector {
-    pub fn x(self) -> Fractional { self.0 }
-    pub fn y(self) -> Fractional { self.1 }
-    pub fn z(self) -> Fractional { self.2 }
+impl<T> Vector<T>
+where T: Add<Output = T> + Sub<Output = T> + Neg<Output = T>
+       + Mul<Output = T> + Div<Output = T> + Trig + Copy {
+    pub fn x(self) -> T { self.0 }
+    pub fn y(self) -> T { self.1 }
+    pub fn z(self) -> T { self.2 }
 
-    pub fn abs(self) -> Fractional {
+    pub fn abs(self) -> T {
         let Vector(x, y, z) = self;
         (x * x + y * y + z * z).sqrt().unwrap()
     }
 
-    pub fn mul(self, s :&Fractional) -> Self {
+    pub fn mul(self, s :&T) -> Self {
         let Vector(x, y, z) = self;
         Vector(x * *s, y * *s, z * *s)
     }
 
-    pub fn dot(self, other :Self) -> Fractional {
+    pub fn dot(self, other :Self) -> T {
         let Vector(x1, y1, z1) = self;
         let Vector(x2, y2, z2) = other;
 
@@ -48,24 +51,25 @@ impl Vector {
     }
 
     pub fn norm(self) -> Self {
-        let Fractional(n, d) = self.abs();
         // TODO This can result in 0 or inf Vectors…
         //      Maybe we need to handle zero and inf abs here…
-        self.mul(&Fractional(d, n))
+        self.mul(&self.abs())
     }
 
-    pub fn distance(self, other :Self) -> Fractional {
+    pub fn distance(self, other :Self) -> T {
         (self - other).abs()
     }
 }
 
-impl fmt::Display for Vector {
+impl<T> fmt::Display for Vector<T>
+where T: Add + Sub + Neg + Mul + Div + Trig + fmt::Display + Copy {
     fn fmt(&self, f :&mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
         write!(f, "({}, {}, {})", self.0, self.1, self.2)
     }
 }
 
-impl PartialEq for Vector {
+impl<T> PartialEq for Vector<T>
+where T: Add + Sub + Neg + Mul + Div + Trig + PartialEq + Copy {
     fn eq(&self, other :&Self) -> bool {
         let Vector(x1, y1, z1) = self;
         let Vector(x2, y2, z2) = other;
@@ -73,7 +77,9 @@ impl PartialEq for Vector {
     }
 }
 
-impl Add for Vector {
+impl<T> Add for Vector<T>
+where T: Add<Output = T> + Sub<Output = T> + Neg<Output = T>
+       + Mul<Output = T> + Div<Output = T> + Trig + Copy {
     type Output = Self;
 
     fn add(self, other :Self) -> Self {
@@ -83,7 +89,9 @@ impl Add for Vector {
     }
 }
 
-impl Sub for Vector {
+impl<T> Sub for Vector<T>
+where T: Add<Output = T> + Sub<Output = T> + Neg<Output = T>
+       + Mul<Output = T> + Div<Output = T> + Trig + Copy {
     type Output = Self;
 
     fn sub(self, other :Self) -> Self {
@@ -91,7 +99,9 @@ impl Sub for Vector {
     }
 }
 
-impl Neg for Vector {
+impl<T> Neg for Vector<T>
+where T: Add<Output = T> + Sub<Output = T> + Neg<Output = T>
+       + Mul<Output = T> + Div<Output = T> + Trig + Copy {
     type Output = Self;
 
     fn neg(self) -> Self {
@@ -100,7 +110,9 @@ impl Neg for Vector {
     }
 }
 
-impl Mul for Vector {
+impl<T> Mul for Vector<T>
+where T: Add<Output = T> + Sub<Output = T> + Neg<Output = T>
+       + Mul<Output = T> + Div<Output = T> + Trig + Copy {
     type Output = Self;
 
     fn mul(self, other :Self) -> Self {